Difference between revisions of "The Old Testament"

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== The Twelve Tribes of Israel ==
 
== The Twelve Tribes of Israel ==
  
These comments will make more sense while looking at Map 5 in the LDS edition of the King James Bible. Remember that counting both of Joseph’s sons Ephraim and Manasseh as full tribes means there are really thirteen tribes, not twelve.
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Right click to open the online [http://www.lds.org/scriptures/bible-maps/map-3?lang=eng LDS Bible Map #3] while working through these notes. Remember that counting both of Joseph’s sons Ephraim and Manasseh as full tribes means there are really thirteen tribes, not twelve.
  
=== The Three Key Tribes ===
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=== The Three Key Tribes: Judah, Ephraim, Levi ===
  
Judah is the tribe of kings David and Solomon. David’s descendants continue to rule the Southern Kingdom of Judah after the northern tribes break away to form their own kingdom. Judah’s inheritance includes Jerusalem and is later the tribe of Christ. Judah is the tribe that has managed to preserve its Israelite identity in substantial numbers into modern times.
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'''Judah''' is the tribe of kings David and Solomon. David’s descendants continue to rule the Southern Kingdom of Judah after the northern tribes break away to form their own kingdom. Judah’s inheritance includes Jerusalem and is later the tribe of Christ. Judah is the tribe that has managed to preserve its Israelite identity in substantial numbers into modern times.
  
Ephraim is the tribe that leads the rebellion of northern tribes following the reign of King Solomon. The Northern Kingdom is known as Israel or Ephraim, and the kings of the Northern Kingdom are all Ephraimites. Ephraim and Judah are clearly the two leading tribes of Israel.
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'''Ephraim''' is the tribe that leads the rebellion of northern tribes following the reign of King Solomon. The Northern Kingdom is known as Israel or Ephraim, and the kings of the Northern Kingdom are all Ephraimites. Ephraim and Judah are clearly the two leading tribes of Israel.
  
Levi is the priestly tribe. Levi is not allotted any lands, but is instead given cities scattered throughout the lands allotted to other tribes. Aaron belongs to one of the three principal Levite clans, but his descendants come to monopolize the priestly office and to be treated as a separate fourth clan. The phrase “priests and Levites” thus refers separately to Levites who are descended from Aaron and those who are not.
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'''Levi''' is the priestly tribe. Levi is not allotted any lands, but is instead given cities scattered throughout the lands allotted to other tribes. Aaron belongs to one of the three principal Levite clans, but his descendants come to monopolize the priestly office and to be treated as a separate fourth clan. The phrase “priests and Levites” thus refers separately to Levites who are descended from Aaron and those who are not.
  
 
Only these three tribes are essential to understanding of the Old Testament. The individual identities of other tribes can generally be ignored without much loss of understanding. But the next most useful tribes to keep track of would be Benjamin, Manasseh and Dan.
 
Only these three tribes are essential to understanding of the Old Testament. The individual identities of other tribes can generally be ignored without much loss of understanding. But the next most useful tribes to keep track of would be Benjamin, Manasseh and Dan.
  
=== The Other Two Southern Tribes ===
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=== The Other Two Southern Tribes: Benjamin, Simeon ===
  
 
These two southern tribes are generally associated with Judah. All the other tribes are generally associated instead with Ephraim.
 
These two southern tribes are generally associated with Judah. All the other tribes are generally associated instead with Ephraim.
  
Benjamin’s inheritance is located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the North. Benjamin is important to understanding Israelite history only at the end of Judges and beginning of Samuel when Benjamin is nearly wiped out by the other tribes and then supplies Saul as the first king of Israel. When the kingdom divides following the reign of Solomon, Benjamin is initially associated with the Northern Kingdom but over time becomes associated with the Southern Kingdom of Judah.
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'''Benjamin''' received an inheritance located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the North. Benjamin is important to understanding Israelite history only at the end of Judges and beginning of Samuel when Benjamin is nearly wiped out by the other tribes and then supplies Saul as the first king of Israel. When the kingdom divides following the reign of Solomon, Benjamin is initially associated with the Northern Kingdom but over time becomes associated with the Southern Kingdom of Judah.
  
Simeon is allotted cities but no land, and those cities are all surrounded by land allotted to Judah. Simeon’s inheritance is also the furthest south in all of Israel, thus separating it from all other tribes except Judah. Over time Simeon is largely absorbed into Judah and ceases to have much significance as a separate tribe.
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'''Simeon''' is allotted cities but no land, and those cities are all surrounded by land allotted to Judah. Simeon’s inheritance is also the furthest south in all of Israel, thus separating it from all other tribes except Judah. Over time Simeon is largely absorbed into Judah and ceases to have much significance as a separate tribe.
  
=== The Three Transjordan Tribes ===
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=== The Three Transjordan Tribes: Reuben, Gad, Manasseh ===
  
Reuben, Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh are allowed to settle on land conquered by the Israelites under Moses before Joshua leads the Israelites across the Jordan River into the Promised Land. These tribes nevertheless participate in the initial conquest of Canaan under Joshua. Over time the Jordan River tends to isolate these tribes from the rest of Israel. Reuben has difficulty occupying its inheritance and soon ceases to matter much as a tribe. Gad is known as being particularly warlike.
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'''Reuben''', '''Gad''' and half the tribe of '''Manasseh''' are allowed to settle on land conquered by the Israelites under Moses before Joshua leads the Israelites across the Jordan River into the Promised Land. These tribes nevertheless participate in the initial conquest of Canaan under Joshua. Over time the Jordan River tends to isolate these tribes from the rest of Israel. Reuben has difficulty occupying its inheritance and soon ceases to matter much as a tribe. Gad is known as being particularly warlike.
  
 
The other half of Manasseh’s inheritance is located on adjacent land west of the Jordan River and just north of Ephraim. Manasseh, like Ephraim, is descended from Joseph. And like Ephraim and Judah, Manasseh is a large tribe and often takes a leading role in Israelite affairs.
 
The other half of Manasseh’s inheritance is located on adjacent land west of the Jordan River and just north of Ephraim. Manasseh, like Ephraim, is descended from Joseph. And like Ephraim and Judah, Manasseh is a large tribe and often takes a leading role in Israelite affairs.
  
=== The Five Northernmost Tribes ===
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=== The Five Northernmost Tribes: Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, Asher, Dan ===
  
 
Like Benjamin, Dan’s inheritance is located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the north. But Dan is also bordered on the west by the Philistines and is unable to settle on its inheritance. So in Judges 17-18 the entire tribe abandons its inheritance in the south and migrates to the far north of Israel. Dan thus appears twice on Map 5, with only the northern location shaded to indicate settlement.
 
Like Benjamin, Dan’s inheritance is located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the north. But Dan is also bordered on the west by the Philistines and is unable to settle on its inheritance. So in Judges 17-18 the entire tribe abandons its inheritance in the south and migrates to the far north of Israel. Dan thus appears twice on Map 5, with only the northern location shaded to indicate settlement.
  
The 5 tribes that live north of Ephraim and Manasseh are, from South to North, Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali and Asher – and then Dan furthest north after abandoning its inheritance in the south.
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The 5 tribes that live north of Ephraim and Manasseh are, from South to North, '''Issachar''', '''Zebulon''', '''Naphtali''' and '''Asher''' – and then '''Dan''' furthest north after abandoning its inheritance in the south.
  
 
== Foreign Nations ==
 
== Foreign Nations ==

Revision as of 20:56, 6 May 2012

Organization and brief overview of the Old Testament

The Christian Bible groups the books of the Old Testament in four categories:

1. The Law: Genesis to Deuteronomy
2. History: Joshua to Esther
3. Poetry: Job to Psalms
4. Prophecy: Isaiah to Malachi

Within each of these categories (except poetry) books are arranged in generally chronological order.

The Law, or the five books of Moses

The first category is the five books of Moses, also known as the Law, the Torah, or the Pentateuch.

Genesis is the background. It explains the creation of the world and mankind, Israel’s special relationship with God through the Abrahamic Covenant, and the establishment of the House of Israel when Israel's son Joseph forgives his brothers and, for the first time, the birthright son and his brothers remain together. The first half of Exodus recounts the ten plagues, the Passover, and Israel's escape from Egypt probably around 1300 BC.

In the middle of Exodus, Moses ascends Mount Sinai and receives the Ten Commandments. But while Moses is on the mountain, the people reject God by building and worshipping a golden calf. In the middle of the fourth book, Numbers, the Israelites and ten of the twelve men sent to spy out Canaan refuse to enter the promised land. In response the Lord accuses Israel of testing him ten times, as did Pharaoh, and decrees destruction on this 1st Generation that came up out of Egypt with Moses. Zion can be understood as a covenant relationship involving a king, a people, a law, and a place. And in the Doctrine & Covenants, the law of the Ten Commandments is repeatedly associated with the establishment of Zion in D&C 42, 59, 68, 136. In Exodus the people rejected the king as the law was being received, and in Numbers when the people also reject the place, the Lord rejects the people.

The central book of the five is Leviticus, which contains very little narrative history apart from the establishment of the Levitical Priesthood. The central chapter prescribes the Day of Atonement, the holiest day of the year. The central passage in that chapter recounts the placing of the congregation's sins on a single scapegoat and the sacrifice of a second goat to make reconciliation between God and the entire congregation. This central passage of the five books of Moses points to Christ and his atoning sacrifice.

The second half of Numbers and the book of Deuteronomy recount Moses’ efforts to prepare the 2nd Generation to enter the promised land. Most of Deuteronomy consists of three long speeches in which Moses lays out the "Deuteronomistic Covenant," or the conditions under which Israel will - as part of the Abrahamic Covenant set out at the beginning in Genesis - be blessed to conquer and occupy the promised land of Canaan.

History

The second category of books in the Old Testament is history. These historical books come in two groups.

The first group from Joshua to Kings is often called the "Former Prophets." It is also called the "Deuteronomistic History" since it recounts Israel's successes and failures in maintaining an inheritance in the promised land under the terms spelled out in Deuteronomy in the covenant of complete conquest.

Joshua succeeds Moses probably around 1250 BC and leads the faithful 2nd Generation to conquer much of Canaan.

Judges recounts how the succeeding generations violate three key requirements of the covenant of complete conquest: throwing down pagan altars, not intermarrying with gentiles, and not forming alliances with gentile nations. The "covenant of complete conquest" is consequently replaced with a "covenant of partial conquest" in which gentile peoples are left in the land to stir the Israelites up unto remembrance of their God, in much the same way that the Lamanites would later scourge the Nephites. By the end of Judges the Israelites have spiraled nearly into self-destruction. During this time Ruth marries Boaz.

Samuel begins probably around 1050 BC. It recounts the reigns of Saul and David. Israel now has kings, but it is still using the tabernacle rather than a temple.

Kings tells the 400 year story the first Jerusalem temple, also known as the Temple of Solomon. The first part recounts the reign of Solomon and the dedication of the temple in about 960 BC. After Solomon, the kingdom divides into the Northern Kingdom of Israel and the Southern Kingdom of Judah. A century later, around 850 BC, the two middle parts of Kings dwell on the ministries of Elijah and his successor Elisha. Another century later in 721 BC Assyria conquers the Northern Kingdom and carries off the Lost Ten Tribes. The last part of Kings relates the story of the remaining Southern Kingdom of Judah until it falls to Babylon another century later in 597 BC. Many are carried away north to Babylon, others flee south to Egypt, and within a few years Babylon destroys the temple in 586 BC.

So far the organization of the Old Testament has been straightforward from Genesis through Kings. The second group of historical books is often called the "Post-Exilic Historical Cycle" since it was written after the Babylonian Captivity or Exile.

During the Babylonian Captivity the Jews were prohibited from returning to Jerusalem. But Persia conquered Babylon in 538 BC and a year later allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem. Chronicles was then written. But Chronicles does not pick up the story where Kings left off. Chronicles instead begins with nine chapters of genealogy going back to Adam, two chapters on King Saul, twelve chapters on King David, and covers generally the same ground as Samuel and Kings. Chronicles ends with four verses recounting the Babylonian Captivity, the fall of Babylon to Persia, and the Persian emperor Cyrus’ announcement in 537 BC for the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple.

Ezra picks up the story in 537 BC as the first group of exiles returns to Jerusalem and in 515 BC dedicates the second Jerusalem temple, also known as the Temple of Zerubabbel. Esther marries the Persian emperor Xerxes and in about 484 BC prevents a palace plot to destroy the Jews. Nehemiah then returns to Jerusalem in 444 BC and rebuilds the city wall. This concludes the second historical cycle and recounts the last historical events in the Old Testament.

Poetry

The third category of books in the Old Testament is poetry. Job follows a single narrative plot throughout its 42 chapters. It is narrative poetry, much like the Greek epics and Beowolf, but without the violence. Proverbs has some structure in the opening and closing chapters, but many chapters in the middle simply collect one-line sayings.

The other books of poetry, Psalms, Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon, are collections of short poems that generally stand on their own without reference to what comes before or after.

Lamentations is a short book of five poems written by Jeremiah, so it is placed immediately following Jeremiah rather than in the poetry section.

Prophets

The last section of the Old Testament is the prophets, often called the “latter prophets” to distinguish them from the “former prophets” of Joshua-Kings. The latter prophets are divided between the four major and the twelve minor prophets.

The first of the major prophets was Isaiah, who lived in the Southern Kingdom when the Northern Kingdom was carried off by Assyria. Jeremiah and Ezekiel both lived a century later when the Southern Kingdom was carried off by Babylon. Daniel was about a generation younger and was carried off to Babylon as a child.

The twelve minor prophets are often referred to collectively as the Book of the Twelve Minor Prophets or simply the Book of the Twelve.

There is no scholarly consensus regarding when Joel lived. He could have been either the first or among the very last of the twelve minor prophets.

Four of the minor prophets ministered during the divided kingdoms period: Jonah and Hosea in the Northern Kingdom, Amos who lived in the southern Kingdom but preached in the Northern Kingdom, and then Micah who lived in the Southern Kingdom at the same time as Isaiah when the Northern Kingdom was destroyed by Assyria.

Another four ministered in the Southern Kingdom after the Northern Kingdom was carried off by Assyria but before the Babylonian Captivity: Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah. Only Obadiah is arranged obviously far out of chronological order in the Christian Bible.

The last three ministered shortly after the Babylonian Captivity. Haggai and Zechariah are both mentioned in the book of Ezra, and Malachi ministered probably after Ezra but before Nehemiah.

History of Judah after the Old Testament

In 331 BC, a century after the last of the recorded prophets, Persia was conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece. Upon Alexander’s death two years later, his empire was divided among four of his generals. One established the Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt, another the Seleucid dynasty in Antioch, Syria. The Ptolemies eventually lost control of Jerusalem to the Seleucids.

The most notorious of the Seleucid emperors was Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who intentionally polluted the temple another century and a half later in 167 BC. This precipitated the Maccabean revolt and Jewish independence, and in 164 BC the temple was cleansed and rededicated. Judah’s independence lasted for a hundred years.

In 63 BC Jerusalem was conquered by Rome at the invitation of competing factions within the Jewish state. Under Rome, Herod greatly enlarged the Temple of Zerubbabel so that it became known as the Temple of Herod. Jesus Christ was born and ministered in Judea and, though scholars debate the exact year, died and was resurrected in about 33 AD. About 40 years later, while the New Testament was still being written, the second Jerusalem temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD following a Jewish revolt.

The Twelve Tribes of Israel

Right click to open the online LDS Bible Map #3 while working through these notes. Remember that counting both of Joseph’s sons Ephraim and Manasseh as full tribes means there are really thirteen tribes, not twelve.

The Three Key Tribes: Judah, Ephraim, Levi

Judah is the tribe of kings David and Solomon. David’s descendants continue to rule the Southern Kingdom of Judah after the northern tribes break away to form their own kingdom. Judah’s inheritance includes Jerusalem and is later the tribe of Christ. Judah is the tribe that has managed to preserve its Israelite identity in substantial numbers into modern times.

Ephraim is the tribe that leads the rebellion of northern tribes following the reign of King Solomon. The Northern Kingdom is known as Israel or Ephraim, and the kings of the Northern Kingdom are all Ephraimites. Ephraim and Judah are clearly the two leading tribes of Israel.

Levi is the priestly tribe. Levi is not allotted any lands, but is instead given cities scattered throughout the lands allotted to other tribes. Aaron belongs to one of the three principal Levite clans, but his descendants come to monopolize the priestly office and to be treated as a separate fourth clan. The phrase “priests and Levites” thus refers separately to Levites who are descended from Aaron and those who are not.

Only these three tribes are essential to understanding of the Old Testament. The individual identities of other tribes can generally be ignored without much loss of understanding. But the next most useful tribes to keep track of would be Benjamin, Manasseh and Dan.

The Other Two Southern Tribes: Benjamin, Simeon

These two southern tribes are generally associated with Judah. All the other tribes are generally associated instead with Ephraim.

Benjamin received an inheritance located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the North. Benjamin is important to understanding Israelite history only at the end of Judges and beginning of Samuel when Benjamin is nearly wiped out by the other tribes and then supplies Saul as the first king of Israel. When the kingdom divides following the reign of Solomon, Benjamin is initially associated with the Northern Kingdom but over time becomes associated with the Southern Kingdom of Judah.

Simeon is allotted cities but no land, and those cities are all surrounded by land allotted to Judah. Simeon’s inheritance is also the furthest south in all of Israel, thus separating it from all other tribes except Judah. Over time Simeon is largely absorbed into Judah and ceases to have much significance as a separate tribe.

The Three Transjordan Tribes: Reuben, Gad, Manasseh

Reuben, Gad and half the tribe of Manasseh are allowed to settle on land conquered by the Israelites under Moses before Joshua leads the Israelites across the Jordan River into the Promised Land. These tribes nevertheless participate in the initial conquest of Canaan under Joshua. Over time the Jordan River tends to isolate these tribes from the rest of Israel. Reuben has difficulty occupying its inheritance and soon ceases to matter much as a tribe. Gad is known as being particularly warlike.

The other half of Manasseh’s inheritance is located on adjacent land west of the Jordan River and just north of Ephraim. Manasseh, like Ephraim, is descended from Joseph. And like Ephraim and Judah, Manasseh is a large tribe and often takes a leading role in Israelite affairs.

The Five Northernmost Tribes: Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, Asher, Dan

Like Benjamin, Dan’s inheritance is located between the two dominant tribes of Judah to the south and Ephraim to the north. But Dan is also bordered on the west by the Philistines and is unable to settle on its inheritance. So in Judges 17-18 the entire tribe abandons its inheritance in the south and migrates to the far north of Israel. Dan thus appears twice on Map 5, with only the northern location shaded to indicate settlement.

The 5 tribes that live north of Ephraim and Manasseh are, from South to North, Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali and Asher – and then Dan furthest north after abandoning its inheritance in the south.

Foreign Nations

These comments will make more sense while looking at Maps 5-9 in the LDS Edition of the King James Bible.

In the Promised Land

When Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt, the people who already lived in the Promised Land are often referred to collectively as Canaanites. Those who lived in and around Jerusalem were known as Jebusites, those to the south as Amorites, and those to the north as Hivites. It is not important to distinguish between the various groups of Canaanites, just to recognize them as the previous inhabitants.

The Northern Kingdom of Israel had its capital at Samaria. After the Northern Kingdom was carried off by Assyria, those who lived in the area were known as Samaritans. The Samaritans were a mix of escaped Israelites and foreigners. Their religious practices were also a mixture, and they were looked down on by the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Following the Babylonian Exile they attempted to participate in rebuilding the temple at Jerusalem, but they were rebuffed and so built their own temple on Mount Gerizim and became enemies to the Jews.

Neighbors West of the Jordan River

The Phoenicians lived west of northern Israel on the Mediterranean coast (now Lebanon). They were known as sea-faring traders more than conquerors. This is the one nearby nation that had little conflict with Israel. The two chief Phoenician cities were Tyre and Sidon, and the Phoenicians are sometimes referred to as Sidonians.

The Philistines lived on the plains between Israel and the Mediterranean coast. Their principal five cities were Gaza, Gath, Ashkelon, Ashdod and Ekron (now mostly in the Gaza Strip of Palestine). The Philistines were a significant threat to Israel through the reign of the judges and King Saul. David took several cities from the Philistines that were later lost back to the Philistines.

The Amalekites lived in the Negeb Desert south of Beer-sheba. They may have been descended from a grandson of Jacob’s brother Esau who was named Amalek. The Amalekites were the first to attack Israel after it left Egypt (Exodus 17:8). They were constantly at war with Israel until greatly weakened by Saul and David. The Amalekites were ultimately destroyed by the tribe of Simeon (1 Chronicles 4:43). Israel was commanded to utterly destroy only two groups of peoples, the Canaanites and the Amalekites (CITE). Hamman the Agagite in the story of Esther may be a descendant of the King Agag who was killed by the prophet Samuel (1 Samuel __:__).

Neighbors East of the Jordan River

Aram or Syria, with its capital at Damascus, is located northeast of Israel. In earlier times the area was also known as Kedar. Syria is discussed at more length below as a great power.

Ammon descended from one of the two daughters of Lot, Abraham’s nephew. Its territory lay directly east of Israel, east of the Jordan River (now northwest Jordan). Ammon hotly disputed the transjordan territory claimed by Gad and Manasseh and Reuben. Ammon remained hostile to Israel even after both had been conquered by great powers. Ammon was idolatrous.

Moab descended from Lot’s other daughter. Moab was located south of Ammon, or east across the Dead Sea from Judah. With the Dead Sea to separate them, Moab did not as often come into direct conflict with Israel, but the two nations were generally unfriendly.

Edom was located south of Moab (now southwest Jordan). Its capitol Seir best known today as the ruins of Petra. Edom descended from Jacob’s brother Esau and so was the nation most closely related to Israel. The two nations generally hated each other. Edom refused to let Moses pass through on its way to Canaan (Numbers 20:__). Israel was commanded not to destroy Edom (__:__), but it subjugated Edom when it could. In later years Edom was known as Idumea, a term also used to refer to the wicked world.

Midian descended from Abraham through his sons by his concubine Keturah. The Midianites roamed the Arabian Desert east of Israel but would raid westward into Israel until defeated by Gideon (Judges __:__).

The Ishmaelites descended from Abraham through his wife Hagar and her son Ishmael. West in the Arabian Desert? Ishmael is generally regarded as the ancestor of the modern Arabs.

Two Other Small Nations to the North

In Abraham’s day, Haran was located far north of Damascus and far west of Ninevah in an area known as Mitanni. Isaac and Jacob both married girls who lived there and who were descended from Abraham’s brother ____.

Elam was a mountainous area east of Babylon mentioned in prophecies by Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

Regional Powers

Israel spent much of its existence caught between two superpowers, one to the south and another to the north. As these two superpowers struggled for supremacy, Israel and its small neighbors struggled just to survive.

The superpower to the south, of course, was Egypt. Egypt was blessed with the annual floods of the Nile River.

The role of northern superpower, in contrast, was taken up by one people after another. At the time of Abraham and Jacob the great northern power was the Hittite Empire based in modern Turkey.

Syria with its capitol in Damascus was the great northern power at the time of Judges and Samuel. Syria often invaded southward into Gilead, the fertile trans-Jordan land held by Gad, Reuben and Manasseh.

After Israel divided into two kingdoms, the great northern power was Assyria with its capitol at Ninevah. The Assyrians were particularly cruel and were especially feared. In 721 BC the Assyrians conquered the Northern Kingdom and carried off the Lost Ten Tribes, leaving behind the people who became Samaritans. Assyria managed to briefly invade Egypt but was driven back after only about a decade.

Four Successive World Powers

The next northern power to arise was Babylon (#1). But Babylon did what previous northern powers had been unable to do: it permanently defeated the Egyptians at the battle of Carchemish and thus became (at least from a mideastern perspective) the world’s sole superpower. For this reason Babylon is often used as a metaphor for the world, its power, and its attractions. The Babylonians conquered the Southern Kingdom and carried off much of the population in three waves soon after 600 BC.

Only about 60 years later Babylon was succeeded as the world’s sole power by Persia (#2) in 53__ BC. The Persian king Cyrus allowed to the Jews to return to Jerusalem.

Persia was in turn conquered by Alexander the Great of Greece (#3) in 331 BC. Alexander himself died only two years later, and his empire was soon divided into four smaller empires by his generals. But those four Greek empires and their Greek culture remained important for centuries. The Seleucid Empire was based in Antioch, Syria, and the Ptolemaic Empire was based in Egypt.

At the time of Alexander, Rome (#4) was a regional power and controlled only a strip of land southward along Italy’s western coast to Naples. But by the time of Christ, Rome had conquered the Ptolemies, the Seluecids, and Israel.